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Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma Arising within Mature Ovarian Teratoma: A Case Report

Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma Arising within Mature Ovarian Teratoma: A Case Report

Sadaf A, 1 Hossain MI,2  Sultana  N,3 Nasreen S,4 Rahman Z5

 

  1. *Dr. Anika Sadaf, MD. (Pathology) Phase B, Resident, Department of Pathology, Chittagong Medical College, Chattogram, Bangladesh, 4203. anikasadaf261189@gmail.com.
  2. Mohammad Ismail Hossain. Lecturer, Department of Pathology, Chittagong Medical College, Chattogram, Bangladesh, 4203.
  3. Nahid Sultana. Senior Consultant, Obstetrics & Gynaecology. 250 Bedded General Hospital,Chandpur, Bangladesh, 3600.
  4. Sayeeda Nasreen. Assistant Professor, Department of Pathology, Chittagong Medical College, Chattogram, Bangladesh, 4203.
  5. Zillur Rahman. Professor, Department of Pathology, Chittagong Medical College, Chattogram, Bangladesh, 4203.

 *For correspondence

 Abstract

Mature cystic teratoma is the commonest ovarian germ cell tumor. Though malignant transformation is uncommon, papillary thyroid carcinoma has rarely been described as associated with ovarian teratomas. We report a case of a 34-years old multiparous woman who presented with acute abdominal pain and an ovarian mass. After salphingo-oophorectomy, the patient was diagnosed as papillary thyroid carcinoma that arose within a mature cystic ovarian teratoma. To our knowledge, this is the first reported case of papillary thyroid carcinoma arising within a mature ovarian teratoma in this tertiary health care center in Chattogram. We recommend long term follow up to see any metastatic possibility.

 [Journal of Histopathology and Cytopathology, 2020 Jan; 4 (1):60-64]

Keywords: Mature cystic teratoma, papillary thyroid carcinoma, struma ovarii.

Introduction

Among the ovarian germ cell tumors Mature Cystic Teratoma (MCT) is the most common and comprises 10–20% of all ovarian tumors. However, malignant transformation of MCT is not common and the incidence is 1–3%.1 Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC) is the commonest type, found in 80% of cases.2 Papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) within teratoma is one of the rarest types with ranges varying from 0.1% and 0.2%, and usually diagnosed postoperatively.3 The synchronous development of malignant struma ovarii and primary thyroid carcinoma is extremely rare, though a handful of cases were reported.4 So, presence of thyroid tissue in teratoma, should proceed with further work up to confirm the diagnosis and to explore the possibility of a malignant lesion in the mass- either primary or metastasis.5 Here we present a case of a patient with a PTC arising within a ovarian MCT.


Case Presentation
34-year-old multiparous woman who had abdominal pain, distention and irregular menstrual bleeding for approximately for 6 months, presented to the emergency service of Chittagong Medical College Hospital in May 2019 with the complaints of a sharp pain in lower abdomen, with accompanying vomitting. There was no previous medical or surgical history.

On abdominal examination, a tender mass adjacent to the left side of the umbilicus were detected. Manual examination of the vagina revealed tenderness and mass in left adnexal region. Paps smear was done with no abnormality detected. Haemogram and biochemical test results were normal except a hemoglobin level of 9.2 gm/dl. CA-125 was within normal limit and β-HCG was normal. Ultrasonography of the lower abdomen revealed a complex solid cystic mass measuring 82x62x55 mm, with mixed echotexture, compatible with dermoid cyst.

At laparotomy, a cystic mass of approximately 9x7cm size, with a white, smooth glistening surface, originating from the left ovary was observed. Opposite ovary was apparently normal and no adhesion or intra-abdominal deposit was observed. Left sided salphingo-oophorectomy was performed preserving the uterus and right ovary and sent to Department of Pathology, Chittagong Medical College, Chattogram for histopathological evaluation. On gross pathological examination, a cystic mass of 9 cm in diameter (fig-1) with 3cm fallopian tube were noted. On cross section, hair, sebum & fatty materials were come out and some thick greenish fluid was drained and some solid structure was observed on its wall (fig-2).

Microscopic examination revealed mature teratomatous component represented by skin with associated adnexal structures, muscles, fat, benign glands lined by mucin containing columnar epithelium (fig-3,4) and thyroid tissue, within the thyroid tissue foci papillary thyroid carcinoma (fig-5,6) was found. Lining cells had oval nuclei showing nuclear overlapping, grooving and intranuclear cytoplasmic inclusions. Follicles also contained amorphous eosinophilic thick colloid. The fallopian tube was unremarkable. Immunohistochemical (IHC) examination revealed positivity for TTF-1 (fig-8,9). With these findings, diagnosis of a “mature cystic teratoma with malignant transformation to papillary thyroid carcinoma” was made. Postoperatively plasma levels of T3, T4, TSH and thyroglobulin of the patient were normal. A normal parenchymal vasculature was identified by postoperative ultrasonography of the thyroid gland.

Discussion

Mature cystic teratomas are also known as dermoid cysts, because they are mostly cystic, skin & skin appendages are the most common structures. Thyroid tissue is present in 10% of the all cases.6 Teratomas containing more than 50% of thyroid tissues are called struma ovarii, often presented as monodermal teratoma.7 Malignant transformation of MCT is rare; however, several types of malignancy can develop from any one of three germ-cell layers. Squamous cell carcinoma, derived from ectoderm is the commonest type; less common malignancies include soft tissue sarcomas, adenocarcinomas, malignant melanomas, basal cell carcinomas, carcinoid tumors, and thyroid carcinomas.2 Among thyroid carcinomas the most common histological type is the papillary carcinoma (44%), other types are follicular carcinoma (30%) and follicular variant of papillary carcinoma (26%).3

 The malignant change of an initially benign cystic teratoma is detected in patients between 40 and 60 years of age, older than its benign counterpart. Although the cancer occurs at any age, most patients are postmenopausal.1 The tumor may present as pelvic discomfort, with a pelvic mass on abdominal imaging (USG, CT, MRI) or during laparotomy for any other reason. Preoperative definitive diagnosis of stroma ovarii or papillary thyroid carcinoma is not possible. The only possibility of preoperative diagnosis is by radioactive iodine scan (not done routinely).8 Various case reports have been published over the past few years regarding the histological diagnoses and treatment options. The diagnoses of thyroid carcinomas arising in teratomas should be made following the guidelines for diagnosing carcinomas in thyroid gland. Disease is treatable with good out come in most cases. Only 7% and 14% of patients with papillary carcinoma and typical follicular carcinoma, respectively died of disease. Due to rarity of disease no consensus on treatment has been made, however treatment options include oophorectomy, additional thyroidectomy, radioactive iodine and long term follow up with serum thyroglobulin measurement.9

In order to determine metastatic disease, in MCT cases undergoing malignant transformation, follow up of thyroglobulin (Tg) levels is recommended. The only source of circulating Tg is the thyroid tissue and ovarian teratomas containing thyroid tissue, which is a very rare condition. However, high Tg level in benign thyroid diseases hamper determination of it as a convenient tumour marker in MCT, who did not undergo thyroidectomy and who contain thyroid tissue with malignant transformation. On the other hand, the high levels of anti-thyroglobulin antibody (anti-Tg Ab) may cause Tg levels to be erroneously low. For this reason, the follow-up of Tg levels is favourable for patients, who underwent thyroidectomy only and for patients left with no or very little thyroid tissue. In order to evaluate Tg levels correctly, follow-up of Tg levels together with anti-Tg Ab levels is advisable as persisting high levels of anti-Tg Ab indicate a persistent disease.3 In our case, Plasma T3, T4, TSH and Tg level were normal and normal parenchymal vasculature was identified by ultrasonography of the thyroid gland. Anti-Tg Ab level can’t be performed due to patient’s refusal. Logani et al., 2001 was commented the absence of normal thyroid tissue and features of teratoma, in favour of a metastatic lesion originating from thyroid gland.10 In the presented case, histologic evidence of mature teratoma, normal thyroid tissue along foci of papillary thyroid carcinoma, and positive immunohistochemical stain for thyroid transcription factor-1(TTF-1) indicates primary thyroid carcinoma arising within MCT.

Conclusion

Whether further therapy with total thyroidectomy and radioiodine ablation may be beneficial is unknown. The rarity of MCT cases undergoing PTC transformation impedes the establishment of a protocol for treatment and follow-up. We recommend that a long-term follow-up of these cases is needed to know more about the prognosis and to see any local recurrence or metastasis.

References

  1. Rim SY, Kim SM, Choi HS. Malignant transformation of ovarian mature cystic teratoma. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2006; 16:140–44.
  2. Pineyro MM, Pereda J, Schou P, Santos DL, Peña SDI, Caserta B,Pisabarro R. Papillary thyroid microcarcinoma arising within a mature ovarian teratoma: case report and review of the literature. Clinical Medicine Insights: Endocrinology and Diabetes. 2017; 10: 1–3.
  3. Cokmez H,Gulbahar A, Yigit S, Aydin C. Oncocytic and tall columnar type papillary thyroid carcinoma arising on a mature cystic teratoma: A case report and literature review. J Pak Med Assoc. 2019; 69:116-19.
  4. Tzelepis EG, Barengolts E, Garzon S, Shulan J, Eisenberg Y. Unusual case of malignant strumaovarii and cervical thyroid cancer preceded by ovarian teratoma: case report and review of the literature. Hindawi: Case Reports in Endocrinology. 2019 Mar 17; 1-7.
  5. Yeasmin S. A case of papillary thyroid cancer and extraovarian pelvic Teratoma.Journal of the Endocrine Society. 2019; 3(1). available at:https://doi.org/10.1210/js.2019-SUN-603.
  6. Bedir R,Yılmaz R. Coexistence of papillary thyroid cancer and hashimoto’sthyroiditis developing within an ovarian mature cystic teratoma. Journal of Mid-life Health. 2019 April 10; 10: 45-47.
  7. ParulskaES, Pioch A, Chyrek EC, Wolinski K, Jurczyszyn DJ, Jedynska MJ, Majewski P, Zabel M,Ruchala M. The role of immunohistochemical examination in diagnosis of papillary thyroid cancer in strumaovarii. Folia Histochemica Et Cytobiologica. 2019;57(1):35–42.
  8. Naeem M, Iqbal M, Imran MB,Tabassum R. Malignant strumaovarii: a rare case report. European Journal of Medical Case Reports. 2017; 2(1): 30-32.
  9. Haider A, Hussain M, Hassan U, Loya A. Papillary thyroid carcinoma arising in ovarian teratomas: A report of three cases. Journal of Islamabad Medical & Dental College (JIMDC). 2015 Sep 27; 4(2): 88-90.
  10. Logani S, Baloch ZW, Snyder PJ, Weinstein R, LiVolsi VA. Cystic ovarian metastasis from papillary thyroid carcinoma: A case report. Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. 2001; 11(11): 1073-1075.

 

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Histopathological Diagnosis of Rhinofacial Entomophthoramycosis in a 16-Year-Old Girl: A Case Report

Histopathological Diagnosis of Rhinofacial Entomophthoramycosis in a 16-Year-Old Girl: A Case Report

*Asaduzzaman,1 Khandkar T,2 Rahman DA3 

 

  1. *Dr. Asaduzzaman, Assistant Professor of Histopathology, Sheikh HasinaNational Institute of Burn and Plastic Surgery, Dhaka, Bangladesh. dr.asad37@gmail.com
  2. Tahmina Khandkar, Assistant Registrar, Paediatric Nephrology, National Institute of Kidney Diseases and Urology, Shere-E-Bangla Nagar, Dhaka
  3. DM Arifur Rahman, Assistant Professor, Department of Pathology, TMSS Medical College, Bogura

 *For correspondence

 Abstract

Rhinoentomophthoramycosis is an uncommon and severely disfiguring disease. It mainly involves the mucosa of the nares, nasal passages, nasal sinuses, nasopharynx, mouth and spreads to adjacent tissues causing disfigurement of face. Histopathological examinations and mycological cultures are the gold standard for confirmation of entomophthoramycosis. We report a case of a 16-year-old girl who presented with swelling and ulcer of face. Clinical presentation along with typical histopathologic findings were diagnostic in this case.

 [Journal of Histopathology and Cytopathology, 2020 Jan; 4 (1):55-59]

 Keywords: Entomophthoramycosis, zygomycosis, fungal infection of face, fungal granuloma, splendore-Hoeppli reaction

Introduction

Rhinoentomophthoramycosis is not so common in Bangladesh as well as other parts of the world. It is a grossly disfiguring disease. The medically important class zygomycetes are in two orders, the Mucorales and the Entomophthorales. Rhinofacialentomophthoralesmainly affects the mucosa of the nares, nasal passages, nasal sinuses, nasopharynx, mouth, and spreads to adjacent tissues causing disfigurement of the face. It occurs predominantly in immunocompetent individuals and live as saprophytes in soil and decaying plant matter.1 Rhinofacialconidiobolomycosis affects the subcutaneous tissues of the face, especially the paranasal sinuses as well as the deeper organs.2 We report the case of a teen-aged female who presented to us with facial swelling and ulcer and was diagnosed by histopathology.

 Case Report

An immunocompetent16-year-old girl from Chittagong presented to the outpatient department of Sheikh Hasina National Institute of Burn and Plastic Surgery with a one year history of progressive nasal and maxillofacial swelling. Swelling of face started from the nasal bridge and gradually spread into the left side of the face. For the facial swelling she had received multiple treatments, including glucocorticoids and antibiotics. But for the last one month she developed multiple ulcers with purulent discharge over the swelling. The physical examination reveals an ulcer over upper part of left cheek and swelling over bridge of nose. Adjacent area revealed erythema, edema, and tenderness over the nasal dorsum and forehead, extending to the soft tissue around left eyes (Fig. 1). Initially she has undergone biochemical and radiological investigations.

Laboratory investigations included a haemoglobin of 11.6 gm/dl, total leucocyte count 12.36×109/L with a differential count within normal range, and platelet count was 400.1x 109/L. Other biochemical tests were within normal limit. Serology for hepatitis B surface antigen and human immunodeficiency virus 1 and 2 were negative. MRI of face revealed diffuse soft tissue thickening involving the paranasal sinuses, skin and subcutaneous tissue in left side of face extending into the left zygomatoco-temporal region.  Direct naso-endoscopic examination revels left sided middle meatus. Septum and lateral wall of nose were congested. Middle meatus was adherent to the lateral wall of nose. At right side, crest of nose, middle meatus was distorted, nasal septum was absent/dehiscent on posterior part. There was no growth on nasopharynx. Biopsy specimens were obtained from multiple sites, including the forehead and the nose. The gross specimen consisted of two skin covered piece of tissue; largest one measured 4x3x1.5 cm and smaller one measures 1.5×0.8×0.5 cm. Skin surface showed multiple ulcers. The cut surface was solid and tan gray. Histopathological examination showed a chronic granulomatous inflammation (Fig. 2) with broad nonseptate branching hyphae surrounding amorphous eosinophilic substance, the Splendore-Hoeppli reaction (Fig. 3). Marked lympho-plasmacytic cell infiltrate with tissue eosinophilia and foreign body type of giant cells containing fungal elements were present. Periodic acid Schiff and Gomori-Methenamine-Silverstain highlighted the fungal elements and the surrounding amorphous eosinophilic material (Fig. 4 and 5). She was diagnosed as a case of Rhinofacialentomophthoramycosis. The patient was then on systemic antifungal therapy.

Discussion

Rhinofacialentomophthoramycosis is an uncommon fungal infection; it mostly occurs in the tropical and subtropical regions of different parts of the world. G. Bras reported the first case of a Jamaican native in 1965. It is predominantly a chronic mucocutaneous and subcutaneous infection. The name Entomophthorales was coined from the Greek word “Entomon” meaning insect implicating their pathogenic nature in insects. Formerly, the two orders, namely Mucorales and Entomophthorales, were classified in the phylum Zygomycota. Hibbett et al. suggested a comprehensive phylogenetic classification of the kingdom Fungi, and the phylum Zygomycota was eliminated as a result of polyphyletic characteristics.3 Therefore, the taxa belonging to Zygomycota were distributed among the phylum Glomeromycota and four subphyla of uncertain placement (incertaesedis). Entomophthorales and Mucorales as well as two other orders (Kickxellales and Zoopagales) were raised to the rank of subphyla and renamed as Entomophthoromycotina, Mucoromycotina, Kickxellomycotina,and Zoopagomycotina.4 Entomophthoromycotina encompasses twogenera that cause human infection, Basidiolus and Conidiolus.

Humans suffering from rhinoentomophthoromycosis get infected by the attachment of conidia of C. coronatus to nasal/sinusoidal mucosa. Initially, the disease presents like sinusitis.5 A nodule at the nostrils indicates expansion into the subcutaneous fat.6 The infection spreads within the subcutaneous fatty layers of the nasal bridge, eyelids, cheek, and upper lip. Swellings are firm, indolent, and, initially, often reddened and warm, while later they are often itchy.7 Mucosal swellings rarely affect laryngeal structures or cause dyspnoea. Ulcerations of skin or mucosa may occurs, as we found in our case. Skin-adherent structures, eye motility, and vision usually remain unaffected; and bones, vessels, muscle, and lymph nodes are rarely involved. The course of the disease is usually benign.8

The diagnosis is based on a combination of mycologic and histopathological tests, and clinical presentation.Histological examinations and mycological cultures are the gold standard for confirmation of entomophthoromycosis. Biopsy of skin lesions is preferred for diagnosis than pus, as the chances of positive identification with potassium hydroxide preparation and culture are better with tissue specimens.9 Entomophthoromycosis can be easily differentiated from other fungi by their characteristic hyphal morphology. The hyphae are broad, aseptate, or sparsely septate, with right-angle branching.10 The histological inflammatory reaction shows infiltration with lymphocytes, plasma cells, epithelioid cells, multinucleate giant cells, and histiocytes with an area of central necrosis that is surrounded by eosinophilic infiltration. This phenomenon is called Splendore–Hoeppli phenomenon.10 Our patient had all these typical features. PAS stain and GomoriMethenamine-Silver (GMS) stains are useful to demonstrate the fungal hyphae. Examination under fluorescent microscopy using fluorescent dye (Blankophor) wet mount preparation increases the sensitivity of diagnosis.11 Definitive diagnosis requires culture, polymerase chain reaction testing, and immunohistochemistry.

Treatment for endomophthoromycosis ismedical and surgical. Systemic antifungal therapy and or surgical debridement is the primary choice in most cases. Several antifungal agents are used for the treatment of endomophthoromycosis such as itraconazole and amphotericin B.12

Conclusion

The entomophthoromycosis is a severe fungal disease that can affect both immunocompetent and immunocompromised individuals. Despite the clinical features, the disease requires biopsy for diagnosis, as histological examinations and mycological cultures are the gold standard for confirmation of entomophthoramycosis.This disease have a favorable prognosis if early treatments can be ensured.

 References

  1. Manning RJ, Waters SD, Callaghan AA. Saprotrophy of Conidiobolus and Basidiobolus in leaf litter. Mycol Res. 2007; 111: 1437–1449.
  2. Prabhu RM, Patel R. Mucormycosis and entomophthoramycosis: A review of the clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment. ClinMicrobiol Infect 2004;10 Suppl 1:31-47.
  3. Hibbett DS, Binder M, Bischoff JF, Blackwell M, Cannon PF, Eriksson OE, et al. A higher-level phylogenetic classification of the fungi. Mycol Res 2007;111:509-47.
  4. Kwon-Chung KJ. Taxonomy of fungi causing mucormycosis and entomophthoramycosis (zygomycosis) and nomenclature of the disease: Molecular mycologic perspectives. Clin Infect Dis 2012;54Suppl 1:S8-15.
  5. Choon SE, Kang J, Neafie RC, Ragsdale B, Klassen-Fischer M, Carlson JA. Conidiobolomycosis in a young Malaysian woman showing chronic localized fibrosingleukocytoclasticvasculitis: a case report and meta-analysis focusing on clinicopathologic and therapeutic correlations with outcome. Am J Dermatopathol. 2012; 34: 511–522.
  6. Choon SE, Kang J, Neafie RC, Ragsdale B, Klassen-Fischer M, Carlson JA. Conidiobolomycosis in a young Malaysian woman showing chronic localized fibrosingleukocytoclasticvasculitis: a case report and meta-analysis focusing on clinicopathologic and therapeutic correlations with outcome. Am J Dermatopathol. 2012; 34: 511–522.
  7. Martinson FD. Chronic Phycomycosis of the Upper Respiratory Tract: RhinophycomycosisEntomophthorae. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1971; 20: 449–455.
  8. Ribes JA, Vanover-Sams CL, Baker DJ. Zygomycetes in Human Disease. ClinMicrobiol Infect. 2000; 13: 236–301.
  9. Chowdhary A, Randhawa HS, Khan ZU, Ahmad S, Khanna G, Gupta R, et al.Rhinoentomophthoromycosis due to Conidioboluscoronatus. A case report and an overview of the disease in India. Med Mycol 2010;48:870-9.
  10. El-Shabrawi MH, Arnaout H, Madkour L, Kamal NM. Entomophthoromycosis: A challenging emerging disease. Mycoses 2014;57Suppl 3:132-7.
  11. Kumar Verma R, Shivaprakash MR, Shanker A, Panda NK. Subcutaneous zygomycosis of the cervicotemporal region: Due to Basidiobolusranarum. Med Mycol Case Rep 2012;1:59-62.
  12. Prabhu RM, Patel R. Mucormycosis and entomophthoramycosis: A review of the clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment. ClinMicrobiol Infect 2004;10Suppl 1:31-47.

 

 

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C3 Glomerulopathy: Overview on a New Disease Entity

C3 Glomerulopathy: Overview on a New Disease Entity

 

*Rahman DA,1 Banu SG2

 

  1. *Dr. DM Arifur Rahman, Assistant Professor, Pathology, TMSS Medical College, Bogura. arifurrahmandm@gmail.com
  2. Sultana Gulshana Banu, Associate Professor, Pathology, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University (BSMMU), Dhaka.

 *For correspondence

 Abstract

The diagnosis of membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis (MPGN) has recently undergone change from an electron microscopy-based classification scheme to one based largely on immunofluorescence findings. Recent advances in our understanding of the disease pathology of membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis has resulted in its re-classification as complement C3 mediated glomerulopathy (C3G) and immune complex-mediated glomerulonephritis (IC-GN). The new concept is based on its underlying pathogenesis, with a key pathogenetic role for the complement alternative pathway (AP), rather than on histomorphological characteristics. This overview summarizes the current state of knowledge about the C3 glomerulopathy.

 [Journal of Histopathology and Cytopathology, 2020 Jan; 4 (1):48-54]

 Keywords: C3 glomerulopathy, Dense deposit disease, C3 glomerulonephritis, Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis

 Introduction

C3 glomerulopathy (C3G) is an emerging kidney disease caused by dysregulation of the alternative complement pathway.1,2,3 The characteristic pathology of this disease is glomerular depositions of dominant C3 with absent or weak immunoglobulins. Therefore, C3G is basically diagnosed by immunofluorescence (IF) and it can reveal various patterns of glomerular injuries by light microscopy(LM).4,5 Following the recent trend of pathogenesis-based reclassification of glomerular diseases, glomerulonephritis associated with alternative complement dysregulation is collectively referred to as C3G.6 Because laboratory detection of alternative complement dysregulation is still uncommon in current practice, predominant C3 deposition by IF is an initial finding that suggests C3G. However, glomerular diseases caused by mechanisms other than alternative complement dysregulation may occasionally satisfy “C3-dominant deposition with scanty immunoglobulins” as stated in the current consensus report.4 Clearly, pathogenesis based classification in glomerular diseases is an important prospect for appropriate therapies, but the entity of C3G still presents dilemmas in diagnostic practice by lack of clear definition and pathogenic basis. We review the current status of C3 glomerulopathy, histological, immunofluorescence findings and treatment

MPGN and C3 Glomerulopathy

Understanding the limitations of current MPGN classification requires a brief review of complement activation pathways. There are two main pathways of complement activation: the classic pathway, which is activated when IgG or IgM antibodies bind to antigens; and the alternative pathway, which does not require the presence of antibodies and can be auto activated by spontaneous cleavage of C3 to C3b, leading to the formation of C3 convertase. The electron microscopy-based classification can result in overlap between types I and III. Both types have been considered to be immune complex-mediated glomerulonephritis but, observations suggest that some cases of MPGN type I or MPGN type III are mediated by complement, not immune complexes.7,8,9

So, the historical classification required modification. It is not based on pathogenesis and there is significant overlapping, which is described earlier. In recent years, there have been great advances in our understanding of the pathogenesis of MPGN, particularly in the area of complement-mediated C3 glomerulopathies, including DDD and C3 glomerulonephritis. 4,10

It is proposed that MPGN be classified into two major groups: immunoglobulin (Ig)-mediated and complement-mediated (C3G). If immunoglobulins are present on IF studies, the evaluation should include a work-up for infections, autoimmune diseases, and monoclonal gammopathies, including cryoglobulins. It should be kept in mind that Ig-mediated MPGN also is associated with extensive C3 (and C4) deposition along the capillary walls via activation of the classic pathway of complement. On the other hand, if the IF studies show predominantly C3 and are negative or show no significant staining for Igs, an in-depth study of the AP is warranted. Ig-mediated MPGN is more likely to be present in adults whereas complement-mediated MPGN is more likely to be present in children and young adults. It is likely that C3G noted in children and young adults is due to genetic mutations in complement-regulating proteins, whereas it is acquired in adults as a result of development of autoantibodies to complement-regulating proteins. Initial evaluation of AP should include serum MAC levels, an alternative pathway functional assay, and hemolytic complement assays. If the initial screening is positive, it should be followed by genetic analysis for mutations and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for the presence of autoantibodies to complement-regulating proteins.11-14

The current approach, therefore, distinguishes those forms of MPGN with isolated C3 deposits (including DDD and C3GN) as alternative complement pathway-mediated C3G from those cases of MPGN that are mediated by the classical complement pathway with deposits of Ig and complement.

Clinical Presentation

Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis or C3G are rare diseases with an estimated incidence of 1–2 per million per total population.15  Patients with C3G present with a variety of symptoms, ranging from a mild disease with asymptomatic microhaematuria and/or proteinuria to a severe disease with nephritic or nephrotic syndrome and renal impairment. Renal survival was worse if the GFR at diagnosis is <60 ml/min/1.73 m2.16

The kidney is the major target, possibly due to the morphological specificities of the glomerular capillaries, in particular the fenestrated endothelium, with exposure of the glomerular basement membrane to serum (complement). Although low levels of C3 are considered a hallmark feature of C3G, in one study low C3 levels were only detected in about 50 % of the patients. Therefore, a normal C3 level does not rule out C3G.17

Nasr et al., 2009 studied 32 paediatric and adult patient of dense deposit disease and Lu., et al 2012 studied 92 children and adult patient of dense deposit disease. Both of the studies reveal at presentation, almost all patients have proteinuria usually with haematuria. Nephrotic-range proteinuria is present in two thirds of the patients. Full nephrotic syndrome in 12% to 65% in different series conducted by Lu et al., 2006 and Servais et al., 2012. Persistently, low serum levels of C3 are found in most patients (approximately 80%). Servais et al have reported the clinical features in 56 patients with C3 glomerulopathy without dense deposits (C3GN) and compared them with 29 patients with DDD and 49 patients with immune complex MPGN type 1. The mean age at diagnosis for C3GN was 30, which was significantly higher than for DDD; 25% of patients were below16 years of age. Twenty-seven percent of patients with C3GN had nephrotic syndrome at presentation as compared with 38% of patients with DDD and 65% of patients with MPGN type I.18,19,20

 Light Microscopy

Light microscopic findings in C3 glomerulopathy can range from membranoproliferative lesions to mesangioproliferative or endocapillary proliferative lesions with or without presence of crescents. In rare instances, light microscopy might be normal. The electron dense osmophilic deposits as seen characteristically in DDD are found within the glomerular basement membrane, and as rounded deposits in the mesangium. In many cases, deposits are also seen in Bowman’s capsule and tubular basement membranes. C3 glomerulopathy, in which deposits do not completely fulfill criteria for dense deposits, are classified as C3GN. Electron microscopy in C3GN shows a complex pattern of mesangial increase and glomerular basement membrane thickening. Differing combinations of subendothelial, intramembranous, and subepithelial deposits are noted.21,22,23

DDD is defined by the presence of dense osmiophilic transformation of the GBM on EM, and on light microscopy, the morphology is variable. While it is clear that a membranoproliferative pattern of glomerular injury with increased lobulation, mesangial expansion, and capillary wall thickening with segmental double contours is common, a range of other patterns of glomerular involvement also occur. Walker et al., 2007 collected 69 cases of DDD from centers in North America, Europe, and Japan. They identified four distinct histologic patterns on light microscopy: membranoproliferative (25%), mesangial proliferative (45%), crescentic (18%), and acute proliferative and exudative (12%).21 In the Columbia series conducted by Nasr et al., 2009 which includes 32 cases of DDD, the frequencies were MPGN (44%), mesangial proliferative(28%), endocapillary proliferative (19%), and crescentic GN (9%). These reports emphasize that fewer than 50% of cases of DDD have MPGN morphology. Morphologically, most C3GN cases show either a mesangial proliferative or membranoproliferative pattern.18

The dense deposits are recognized on light microscopy by thickening of the GBMs by ribbon-like glassy intramembranous deposits. They stain strongly with eosin and appear somewhat refractile (hyaline). They are intensely periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) positive, and the trichrome stain shows them to be fuchsinophilic (red) although this reactivity varies among specimens.23

 Immunofluorescence findings

Immunofluorescence shows characteristic C3 fragment deposition in C3GN.16  But the deposition of C3 is not always isolated. According to the current consensus report, the term ‘‘isolated’’ was replaced by “dominant staining of C3 defined as at least two orders of C3 intensity greater than that of any other immune reactant.” 4

Nasr et al., 2009, Walker et al., 2007, West and McAdams, 1998 studied the immunofluorescence findings. The invariable finding in DDD and C3GN is the presence of C3 in the glomeruli. Intense staining for C3 is noted along the glomerular capillary walls and often in the glomerular mesangial regions. The C3 deposition is usually diffuse and global. The GBM staining may be continuous or discontinuous. The early components of complement, C1q and C4, are usually absent, although occasionally C1q is found.  Immunoglobulins are usually absent or show only focal and segmental staining. If they are present, they often stain much less intensely than C3 and they are usually of the IgM type with a segmental distribution; IgG and especially IgA are less common.18,21,24

Treatment and Prognosis

Modality of treatment of MPGN is difficult and its prognosis is also guarded. About 50% develop chronic renal failure within 10 years. There is a high incidence of recurrence in transplant recipients, particularly in dense-deposit disease. Treatments with steroids, immunosuppressive agents, and antiplatelet drugs have not been proved to be materially effective.25

 Eculizumab, the first available anticomplement therapy, blocks at the level of C5 and has revolutionized the treatment of complement-mediated diseases as well as C3 glomerulopathy.13 This agent is a humanized monoclonal antibody that binds with great affinity to C5 proteins, inhibiting cleaving into C5a and C5b and blocking production of the C5b-9 membrane attack complex. Reports of individual cases showed improvement after treatment, with reduced serum creatinine and proteinuria. Bomback et al 2012, reported that, after 1 year of therapy with eculizumab, there was reduction in active glomerular proliferation and neutrophil infiltration three of five patients, consistent with effective C5 blockade.26

References

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